Guest Blog Authored By: Mei-Hua Li, Ph.D., BCBA-D, LABA
Dr. Mei-Hua Li received her bachelor’s degree in Speech, Language, and Hearing Sciences from Boston University and a master’s and Ph.D. in Applied Behavior Analysis from Simmons University. Her research interests include first and second-language acquisition, verbal behavior, and generative instruction. She has been working with autistic children and teens since 2016 in home settings, public schools, and centers in Massachusetts. She serves Chinese-speaking families with special needs in the Boston Chinatown community. Aside from working with children, she enjoys exploring different instructional methods for teaching ESL to new Chinese immigrants.
Learning a New Language
Have you ever traveled to a new country where you did not speak the language? If you have had this experience, it might have been overwhelming at first, but you likely exercised some problem-solving skills to navigate the complexities of the new language. Maybe you learned about different stores with foreign names by asking the locals. Maybe you did a couple of Duolingo® lessons beforehand to become familiar with common phrases. Or, maybe you relied heavily on your electronic devices to get around and communicate with the locals.
Similarly, adult English Learners (ELs) living in the United States often encounter unfamiliar English words in their daily lives. Imagine an adult immigrant who must learn to read English to make ends meet. It is often an essential task that includes, among other skills, making sense of road and parking signage, store and supermarket signs, and menus in restaurants. It can be a daunting experience! Behavior-analytic research could help teach reading instructions.
What is Matrix Training and How Can it Help?
Matrix training is a systematic arrangement of teaching targets to facilitate generative learning. It has been demonstrated to be effective for teaching reading (de Souza et al., 2009; Hübner et al., 2009; Mueller et al., 2000; Saunders et al., 2003) and spelling (Kinney et al., 2003) to children and adults with or without disabilities. In the context of teaching early reading skills, an instructor could use matrix training to teach reading simple consonant-vowel-consonant or CVC English words (e.g., mat, bat; see the matrix below). First, the instructor could create a table with onsets or the beginning of the words (s-, b-, p-) on each row and rimes or the end of the words (e.g., -am, -ad, -it) in the columns (see the example of a table below). Then, the instructor could teach down the diagonal (e.g., sat, bad, pit). The learner will potentially learn to read the rest of the targets in the table without direct training (e.g., sad, sit, bat, bit, pat, and pad).
| -at | -ad | -it | |
| s- | sat | Sad | sit |
| b- | bat | bad | bit |
| p- | pat | Pad | pit |
Note. Example of a 3×3 matrix training arrangement of CVC words
Learning to read targets that were not directly taught is called recombinative generalization (Frampton & Axe, 2022; Goldstein et al., 1987; Goldstein & Mousetis, 1989). Recombinative generalization is defined as the trained targets exerting stimulus control on untaught targets. This concept was first mentioned by B.F. Skinner (1957) as minimal units, where rearranging components of words form new meanings. With matrix training, the instructor systematically arranges targets in a matrix, teaching a few targets, which will result in recombinative generalization in untaught targets.
Creating an Additive Learning Environment for English Learners
ELs may be proficient in one language before they learn a second (or third one). Often, there are facilitative effects between these languages. For example, ELs who have already learned to read in their first language (L1) will heavily reference their L1 when learning their second language (L2) during the early stages. This is referred to as language transfer, in which the L1 exerts stimulus control over the L2. Language transfer may be classified as having positive or negative impacts (Tarone & Swierzbin, 2009). A positive impact is when a learner identifies language patterns, such as Chinese having characters to represent meanings versus English having letters to combine words. A negative impact that Chinese ELs are likely to experience is dropping the endings of CVC words (e.g., mat vs. map). These reading errors could occur due to differences in language systems. Instructors can remind the ELs of the importance of tense markers or plural endings when learning English (Li & Axe, 2023).
An additive environment encourages the learners to keep both L1 and L2 strong. When teaching, the instructor could encourage ELs to create an additive element to learning a new language. For example, help learners identify the similarities in sentence arrangement (e.g., subject-verb-object) and differences in pronunciation (Mandarin Chinese is a tonal language versus English is a language with inflections). Another way is to identify learners’ interests and capture their motivation in learning to read useful English phrases in their daily lives. For example, reading an exit sign or reading menu items in an American restaurant. Conversely, a subtractive environment is the overemphasis of the importance of perfecting the L2 and diminish the use of L1. Rather than focusing too much on perfecting L2, the instructor could minimize the chance of a subtractive environment by encouraging ELs to maintain both L1 and L2. Additionally, the instructor could provide specific feedback and reinforcement for the learners to ensure sufficient progress with their L2 learning experience. Creating an additive environment that keeps both languages strong can be more beneficial than mastering L2 and reducing the use of L1 .
Lastly, collaboration is key. Creating an avenue to disseminate the science of applied behavior analysis with other professionals (e.g., English language teachers, speech-language pathologists, and reading specialists) is valuable for second language acquisition. Professionals need to collaborate (Kasper et al., 2024) and put ELs’ needs first as the team’s priority. Some examples include encouraging interdisciplinary meetings, incorporating culturally relevant teaching materials, sharing multilingual resources, and fostering community support with the ELs and their families.
References
de Souza, D. G., de Rose, J. C., Faleiros, T. C., Bortoloti, R., Hanna, E. S., & McIlvane, W. J. (2009). Teaching generative reading via recombination of minimal textual units: A legacy of verbal behavior to children in Brazil. International Journal of Psychology & Psychological Therapy, 9(1), 19–44. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2786216/
Frampton, S. E., & Axe, J. B. (2023). A tutorial for implementing matrix training in practice. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 16, 334-345. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40617-022-00733-5
Goldstein, H., Angelo, D., & Mousetis, L. (1987). Acquisition and extension of syntactic repertoires by severely mentally retarded youth. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 8(4), 549–574. https://doi.org/10.1016/0891-4222(87)90054-0
Goldstein, H., & Mousetis, L. (1989). Generalized language learning by children with severe mental retardation: Effects of peers’ expressive modeling. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 22, 245–259. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1989.22-245
Li, M. H., & Axe, J. B. (2023, May). The Effects of Matrix Training on Reading Responses with Adult Learning English as a Second Language. In M.H. Li (Chair), Emergent Learning and Textual Stimulus Variables for Teaching Reading to Children and Adults. Symposium presented at Association for Behavior Analysis International Conference, Denver, Colorado.
Hübner, M. M. C., Gomes, R. C., & McIlvane, W. J. (2009). Recombinative generalization in minimal verbal unit-based reading instruction for pre-reading children. Experimental Analysis of Human Behavior Bulletin [Electronic Resource], 27, 11–17. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21359130/
Kasper, T., Slim, L., & Reuter-Yuill, L., (2024). Buckle up! Steering towards effective SLP collaboration. Association for Behavior Analyst International. https://science.abainternational.org/2024/03/06/buckle-up-steering-towards-effective-slp-collaboration/
Kinney, E. M., Vedora, J., & Stromer, R. (2003). Computer-presented video models to teach generative spelling to a child with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 5(1), 22-29. https://doi.org/10.1177/10983007030050010301
Mueller, M. M., Olmi, D. J., & Saunders, K. J. (2000). Recombinative generalization of within-syllable units in prereading children. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 33(4), 515–531. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2000.33-515
Saunders, K. J., O’Donnell, J., Vaidya, M., & Williams, D. C. (2003). Recombinative generalization of within-syllable units in nonreading adults with mental retardation. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 36(1), 95–99.
Skinner, B. F. (1957). Verbal behavior. Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Tarone, E., & Swierzbin, B. (2009). Exploring learner language. Oxford University Press